Yu, N. et al. Light propagation with phase discontinuities: generalized laws of reflection and refraction. Science 334, 333–337 (2011).
Kuznetsov, A. I. et al. Roadmap for optical metasurfaces. ACS Photon. 11, 816–865 (2024).
Chen, W. T. et al. A broadband achromatic metalens for focusing and imaging in the visible. Nat. Nanotechnol. 13, 220–226 (2018).
Wang, S. et al. A broadband achromatic metalens in the visible. Nat. Nanotechnol. 13, 227–232 (2018).
Rubin, N. A. et al. Matrix Fourier optics enables a compact full-Stokes polarization camera. Science 365, eaax1839 (2019).
Miyata, M., Nemoto, N., Shikama, K., Kobayashi, F. & Hashimoto, T. Full-color-sorting metalenses for high-sensitivity image sensors. Optica 8, 1596–1604 (2021).
Balthasar Mueller, J. P., Rubin, N. A., Devlin, R. C., Groever, B. & Capasso, F. Metasurface polarization optics: independent phase control of arbitrary orthogonal states of polarization. Phys. Rev. Lett. 118, 113901 (2017).
Xiong, B. et al. Breaking the limitation of polarization multiplexing in optical metasurfaces with engineered noise. Science 379, 294–299 (2023).
Gopakumar, M. et al. Full-colour 3D holographic augmented-reality displays with metasurface waveguides. Nature 629, 791–797 (2024).
Oh, J. et al. Adjoint-optimized metasurfaces for compact mode-division multiplexing. ACS Photon. 9, 929–937 (2022).
Soma, G. et al. Compact and scalable polarimetric self-coherent receiver using a dielectric metasurface. Optica 10, 604–611 (2023).
Komatsu, K. et al. Scalable multi-core dual-polarization coherent receiver using a metasurface optical hybrid. J. Light. Technol. 42, 4013–4022 (2024).
Li, S.-Q. et al. Phase-only transmissive spatial light modulator based on tunable dielectric metasurface. Science 364, 1087–1090 (2019).
Holsteen, A. L., Cihan, A. F. & Brongersma, M. L. Temporal color mixing and dynamic beam shaping with silicon metasurfaces. Science 365, 257–260 (2019).
Zhang, Y. et al. Electrically reconfigurable non-volatile metasurface using low-loss optical phase-change material. Nat. Nanotechnol. 16, 661–666 (2021).
Shaltout, A. M., Shalaev, V. M. & Brongersma, M. L. Spatiotemporal light control with active metasurfaces. Science 364, eaat3100 (2019).
Wu, P. C. et al. Dynamic beam steering with all-dielectric electro-optic III–V multiple-quantum-well metasurfaces. Nat. Commun. 10, 3654 (2019).
Park, J. et al. All-solid-state spatial light modulator with independent phase and amplitude control for three-dimensional LiDAR applications. Nat. Nanotechnol. 16, 69–76 (2021).
Panuski, C. L. et al. A full degree-of-freedom spatiotemporal light modulator. Nat. Photon. 16, 834–842 (2022).
Sisler, J. et al. Electrically tunable space-time metasurfaces at optical frequencies. Nat. Nanotechnol. 19, 1491–1498 (2024).
Ren, F. et al. Surface-normal plasmonic modulator using sub-wavelength metal grating on electro-optic polymer thin film. Opt. Commun. 352, 116–120 (2015).
Zhang, J., Kosugi, Y., Otomo, A., Nakano, Y. & Tanemura, T. Active metasurface modulator with electro-optic polymer using bimodal plasmonic resonance. Opt. Express 25, 30304–30311 (2017).
Miyano, H. et al. Dimerized plasmonic-organic grating for high-speed metasurface modulator. In OptoElectronics and Communications Conference/International Conference on Photonics in Switching and Computing TuD3-2 (IEEE, 2022).
Sun, X. et al. Manipulating dual bound states in the continuum for efficient spatial light modulator. Nano Lett. 22, 9982–9989 (2022).
Zhang, J. et al. High-speed metasurface modulator using perfectly absorptive bimodal plasmonic resonance. APL Photon. 8, 121304 (2023).
Zhang, L. et al. Plasmonic metafibers electro-optic modulators. Light Sci. Appl. 12, 198 (2023).
Benea-Chelmus, I.-C. et al. Electro-optic spatial light modulator from an engineered organic layer. Nat. Commun. 12, 5928 (2021).
Sun, X. et al. Electro-optic polymer and silicon nitride hybrid spatial light modulators based on a metasurface. Opt. Express 29, 25543–25551 (2021).
Sun, X. & Qiu, F. Polarization independent high-speed spatial modulators based on an electro-optic polymer and silicon hybrid metasurface. Photon. Res. 10, 2893 (2022).
Benea-Chelmus, I.-C. et al. Gigahertz free-space electro-optic modulators based on Mie resonances. Nat. Commun. 13, 3170 (2022).
Ogasawara, M. et al. Electro-optic polymer surface-normal modulator using silicon high-contrast grating resonator. In Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics JTh2A.48 (2019).
Zheng, T., Gu, Y., Kwon, H., Roberts, G. & Faraon, A. Dynamic light manipulation via silicon-organic slot metasurfaces. Nat. Commun. 15, 1557 (2024).
Kosugi, Y., Yamada, T., Otomo, A., Nakano, Y. & Tanemura, T. Surface-normal electro-optic-polymer modulator with silicon subwavelength grating. IEICE Electron. Express 13, 20160595–20160595 (2016).
Fukui, T. et al. 17 GHz lossless InP-membrane active metasurface. Preprint at (2025).
Damgaard-Carstensen, C., Thomaschewski, M. & Bozhevolnyi, S. I. Electro-optic metasurface-based free-space modulators. Nanoscale 14, 11407–11414 (2022).
Damgaard-Carstensen, C. & Bozhevolnyi, S. I. Nonlocal electro-optic metasurfaces for free-space light modulation. Nanophotonics 12, 2953–2962 (2023).
Damgaard-Carstensen, C., Yezekyan, T., Brongersma, M. L. & Bozhevolnyi, S. I. Highly efficient, tunable, electro-optic, reflective metasurfaces based on quasi-bound states in the continuum. ACS Nano 19, 11999–12006 (2025).
Weigand, H. et al. Enhanced electro-optic modulation in resonant metasurfaces of lithium niobate. ACS Photon. 8, 3004–3009 (2021).
Trajtenberg-Mills, S. et al. LNoS: lithium niobate on silicon spatial light modulator. Preprint at (2024).
Di Francescantonio, A. et al. Efficient GHz electro-optical modulation with a nonlocal lithium niobate metasurface in the linear and nonlinear regime. Nat. Commun. 16, 7000 (2025).
Ju, Y., Zhang, W., Zhao, Y., Deng, X. & Zuo, H. Polarization independent lithium niobate electro-optic modulator based on guided mode resonance. Opt. Mater. 148, 114928 (2024).
Karvounis, A. et al. Electro-optic metasurfaces based on barium titanate nanoparticle films. Adv. Opt. Mater. 8, 2000623 (2020).
Weigand, H. C. et al. Nanoimprinting solution-derived barium titanate for electro-optic metasurfaces. Nano Lett. 24, 5536–5542 (2024).
Weiss, A. et al. Tunable metasurface using thin-film lithium niobate in the telecom regime. ACS Photon. 9, 605–612 (2022).
Overvig, A. C., Shrestha, S. & Yu, N. Dimerized high contrast gratings. Nanophotonics 7, 1157–1168 (2018).
Jin, W. et al. Benzocyclobutene barrier layer for suppressing conductance in nonlinear optical devices during electric field poling. Appl. Phys. Lett. 104, 243304 (2014).
Kieninger, C. et al. Ultra-high electro-optic activity demonstrated in a silicon-organic hybrid modulator. Optica 5, 739–748 (2018).
Sun, K., Wang, W. & Han, Z. High-Q resonances in periodic photonic structures. Phys. Rev. B 109, 085426 (2024).
Koshelev, K., Lepeshov, S., Liu, M., Bogdanov, A. & Kivshar, Y. Asymmetric metasurfaces with high-Q resonances governed by bound states in the continuum. Phys. Rev. Lett. 121, 193903 (2018).
Joannopoulos, J. D., Johnson, S. G., Winn, J. N. & Meade, R. D. Photonic Crystals: Molding the Flow of Light—Second Edition (Princeton Univ. Press, 2008).
Chang, F., Onohara, K. & Mizuochi, T. Forward error correction for 100 G transport networks. IEEE Commun. Mag. 48, S48–S55 (2010).
Chen, Z. et al. Observation of miniaturized bound states in the continuum with ultra-high quality factors. Sci. Bull. 67, 359–366 (2022).
Dolia, V. et al. Very-large-scale-integrated high quality factor nanoantenna pixels. Nat. Nanotechnol. 19, 1290–1298 (2024).
Ledentsov, N. et al. High speed VCSEL technology and applications. J. Light. Technol. 40, 1749–1763 (2022).
Ren, C., Komatsu, K., Soma, G., Nakano, Y. & Tanemura, T. Metasurface-based functional optical splitter for a spatially parallelized dual-polarization coherent modulator. Opt. Lett. 49, 7238–7241 (2024).
Morita, R. et al. High-speed high-power free-space optical communication via directly modulated watt-class photonic-crystal surface-emitting lasers. Optica 11, 971 (2024).
Hammond, S. R., Elder, D. L. & Johnson, L. E. Plasmonic organic hybrid electro-optic modulators as a platform for process optimization towards extraordinary nonlinearity and exceptional stability enabling commercial applications. Proc. SPIE 12418, Organic Photonic Materials and Devices XXV 1241807 (SPIE, 2023).
Xu, H. et al. Ultrahigh electro-optic coefficients, high index of refraction, and long-term stability from Diels–Alder cross-linkable binary molecular glasses. Chem. Mater. 32, 1408–1421 (2020).
Soma, G. et al. Subvolt high-speed free-space modulator with electro-optic metasurface. Figshare (2025).